Specific Process Knowledge/Wafer cleaning/RCA - Revision history

Hvje: Added info about cleaning non standard size samples

2025-09-05T06:24:10Z

Added info about cleaning non standard size samples

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:24, 5 September 2025
Line 22:		Line 22:
	You can find the APV for the RCA bench [http://labmanager.dtu.dk/d4Show.php?id=1916&mach=243 here]		You can find the APV for the RCA bench [http://labmanager.dtu.dk/d4Show.php?id=1916&mach=243 here]

	===RCA procedure===		=== RCA procedure ===
	*'''RCA1: 10 min'''		*'''RCA1: 10 min'''
	*DI water rinsing (dumping three times)		*DI water rinsing (dumping three times)
Line 33:		Line 33:
	For procedure details please look in the [http://labmanager.dtu.dk/d4Show.php?id=1633&mach=243 user manual] in LabManager.		For procedure details please look in the [http://labmanager.dtu.dk/d4Show.php?id=1633&mach=243 user manual] in LabManager.

	~~<br \>~~		=== RCA Cleaning of non-standard sample size ===
			There are different possibilities in the RCA bench and in beakers in the fumehood. Please contact Nanolab staff in this situation.

	'''The user manual, user APV and contact information can be found in LabManager:'''		'''The user manual, user APV and contact information can be found in LabManager:'''

Mmat at 15:20, 10 June 2025

2025-06-10T15:20:28Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:20, 10 June 2025
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			{{cc-nanolab}}

	'''Feedback to this page''': '''[mailto:wetchemistry@nanolab.dtu.dk?Subject=Feed%20back%20from%20page%20http://labadviser.nanolab.dtu.dk/index.php/Specific_Process_Knowledge/Wafer_cleaning/RCA click here]'''		'''Feedback to this page''': '''[mailto:wetchemistry@nanolab.dtu.dk?Subject=Feed%20back%20from%20page%20http://labadviser.nanolab.dtu.dk/index.php/Specific_Process_Knowledge/Wafer_cleaning/RCA click here]'''

	~~'''Unless anything else is stated, everything on this page, text and pictures are made by DTU Nanolab.~~

	'''All links to Kemibrug (SDS) and Labmanager Including APV requires login.'''		'''All links to Kemibrug (SDS) and Labmanager Including APV requires login.'''

	~~'''All measurements on this page has been made by Nanolab staff.'''~~

Mbec at 07:46, 1 February 2023

2023-02-01T07:46:54Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:46, 1 February 2023
Line 1:		Line 1:
	'''Feedback to this page''': '''[mailto:wetchemistry@nanolab.dtu.dk?Subject=Feed%20back%20from%20page%20http://labadviser.nanolab.dtu.dk/index.php/Specific_Process_Knowledge/Wafer_cleaning/RCA click here]'''		'''Feedback to this page''': '''[mailto:wetchemistry@nanolab.dtu.dk?Subject=Feed%20back%20from%20page%20http://labadviser.nanolab.dtu.dk/index.php/Specific_Process_Knowledge/Wafer_cleaning/RCA click here]'''

			'''Unless anything else is stated, everything on this page, text and pictures are made by DTU Nanolab.

			'''All links to Kemibrug (SDS) and Labmanager Including APV requires login.'''

			'''All measurements on this page has been made by Nanolab staff.'''


	==RCA cleaning==		==RCA cleaning==

Mbec: /* RCA cleaning */

2022-08-05T12:51:44Z

RCA cleaning

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:51, 5 August 2022
Line 8:		Line 8:
	RCA1 is a powerful oxidizer and will thus remove organic contaminants. The ammonium hydroxide in RCA1 also has good solvating power as it can complex metals such as Cu, Ag, Ni, Co and Cd into solution. RCA2 forms soluble complexes with heavy metals and also shows cleaning action similar to that of piranha solutions. Furthermore, solutions of hydrochloric acid, which is a major constituent of RCA2, has proven effective at removing alkali metal ions. RCA2 is also effective at removing metal hydroxide traces that cannot be removed in ammonia-containing solutions such as RCA1. These include Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Fe(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Mg(OH)<sub>2</sub> and Zn(OH)<sub>2</sub>. It is important that the chemicals used are very clean. RCA mixtures are therefore only used shortly after mixing and for a limited number of samples.<br>		RCA1 is a powerful oxidizer and will thus remove organic contaminants. The ammonium hydroxide in RCA1 also has good solvating power as it can complex metals such as Cu, Ag, Ni, Co and Cd into solution. RCA2 forms soluble complexes with heavy metals and also shows cleaning action similar to that of piranha solutions. Furthermore, solutions of hydrochloric acid, which is a major constituent of RCA2, has proven effective at removing alkali metal ions. RCA2 is also effective at removing metal hydroxide traces that cannot be removed in ammonia-containing solutions such as RCA1. These include Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Fe(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Mg(OH)<sub>2</sub> and Zn(OH)<sub>2</sub>. It is important that the chemicals used are very clean. RCA mixtures are therefore only used shortly after mixing and for a limited number of samples.<br>

	Since RCA1 can oxidize silicon to silicon dioxide, an HF dip is sometimes used between RCA1 and RCA2. This will also remove contaminants that can be trapped in the formed oxide. However, this step is often omitted, since RCA1 removes the native oxide and then re-oxidizes the surface. This in itself has a cleaning action. It is generally not advised to do an HF dip after RCA-2 if the samples will be processed by wet chemical processes afterwards. This is because the hydrogenated surface will be extremely reactive and therefore attract contaminants from both the air and processing liquids. In this case it is better to continue processing with the passivated oxide surface. RCA clean is often done prior to furnace processes, an in these cases an HF dip after RCA-2 makes sense. Ideally the wafers should be transferred to the furnace immediately after RCA cleaning, because the samples will be very sensitive to recontamination as mentioned above.<br>		Since RCA1 can oxidize silicon to silicon dioxide, an HF dip is sometimes used between RCA1 and RCA2. This will also remove contaminants that can be trapped in the formed oxide. However, this step is often omitted, since RCA1 removes the native oxide and then re-oxidizes the surface. This in itself has a cleaning action. It is generally not advised to do an HF dip after RCA-2 if the samples will be processed by wet chemical processes afterwards. This is because the hydrogenated surface will be extremely reactive and therefore attract contaminants from both the air and processing liquids. In this case it is better to continue processing with the passivated oxide surface. RCA clean is often done prior to furnace processes, an in these cases an HF dip after RCA-2 makes sense. Ideally the wafers should be transferred to the furnace immediately after RCA cleaning, because the samples will be very sensitive to recontamination as mentioned above.<br>

	A crucial part of the RCA cleaning procedure is the oxidation by H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the lifetime of RCA1 and RCA2 solutions is limited to about 1 hour after preparation and heating to 70<sup>o</sup>C because H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> decomposes at this temperature. A temperature of 70°C is optimal. RCA solutions should never be heated above 80°C since this will lead to excessive decomposition and loss of NH<sub>3</sub>.<br>		A crucial part of the RCA cleaning procedure is the oxidation by H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the lifetime of RCA1 and RCA2 solutions is limited to about 1 hour after preparation and heating to 70<sup>o</sup>C because H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> decomposes at this temperature. A temperature of 70°C is optimal. RCA solutions should never be heated above 80°C since this will lead to excessive decomposition and loss of NH<sub>3</sub>.<br>

Jmli at 15:05, 25 November 2019

2019-11-25T15:05:57Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:05, 25 November 2019
Line 1:		Line 1:
	'''Feedback to this page''': '''[mailto:wetchemistry@~~danchip~~.dtu.dk?Subject=Feed%20back%20from%20page%20http://labadviser.~~danchip~~.dtu.dk/index.php/Specific_Process_Knowledge/Wafer_cleaning/RCA click here]'''		'''Feedback to this page''': '''[mailto:wetchemistry@nanolab.dtu.dk?Subject=Feed%20back%20from%20page%20http://labadviser.nanolab.dtu.dk/index.php/Specific_Process_Knowledge/Wafer_cleaning/RCA click here]'''

	==RCA cleaning==		==RCA cleaning==
Line 26:		Line 26:
	*Optional: HF: 30 sec (avoid it if you have a very thin oxide (0-200 Å) as the top layer)		*Optional: HF: 30 sec (avoid it if you have a very thin oxide (0-200 Å) as the top layer)
	*DI water rinsing (bubbler)<br>		*DI water rinsing (bubbler)<br>
	For procedure details please look in the [http://labmanager~~.danchip~~.dtu.dk/d4Show.php?id=1633&mach=243 user manual] in LabManager.		For procedure details please look in the [http://labmanager.dtu.dk/d4Show.php?id=1633&mach=243 user manual] in LabManager.

	<br \>		<br \>
Line 32:		Line 32:
	'''The user manual, user APV and contact information can be found in LabManager:'''		'''The user manual, user APV and contact information can be found in LabManager:'''
	<!-- remember to remove the type of documents that are not present -->		<!-- remember to remove the type of documents that are not present -->
	[http://labmanager~~.danchip~~.dtu.dk/function.php?module=Machine&view=view&mach=243 RCA info page in LabManager]		[http://labmanager.dtu.dk/function.php?module=Machine&view=view&mach=243 RCA info page in LabManager]

	==Overview of RCA process data==		==Overview of RCA process data==
Line 109:		Line 109:
	\|		\|
	4"-6" wafers <br />		4"-6" wafers <br />
	For 2" wafers please contact ~~Danchip~~ staff		For 2" wafers please contact Nanolab staff
	\|		\|
	4"-6" wafers <br />		4"-6" wafers <br />
	For 2" wafers please contact ~~Danchip~~ staff		For 2" wafers please contact Nanolab staff
	\|		\|
	4"-6" wafers <br />		4"-6" wafers <br />
	For 2" wafers please contact ~~Danchip~~ staff		For 2" wafers please contact Nanolab staff
	\|-		\|-
	\|}		\|}

Choi: /* Overview of RCA process data */

2019-05-15T11:32:41Z

Overview of RCA process data

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:32, 15 May 2019
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	\|-style="background:silver; color:black"		\|-style="background:silver; color:black"
	!		!
	! RCA1		! RCA1 (SC-1)
	! RCA2		! RCA2 (SC-2)
	! HF		! HF
	\|-		\|-

Choi: /* RCA cleaning */

2019-05-15T11:32:00Z

RCA cleaning

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:32, 15 May 2019
Line 10:		Line 10:
	Since RCA1 can oxidize silicon to silicon dioxide, an HF dip is sometimes used between RCA1 and RCA2. This will also remove contaminants that can be trapped in the formed oxide. However, this step is often omitted, since RCA1 removes the native oxide and then re-oxidizes the surface. This in itself has a cleaning action. It is generally not advised to do an HF dip after RCA-2 if the samples will be processed by wet chemical processes afterwards. This is because the hydrogenated surface will be extremely reactive and therefore attract contaminants from both the air and processing liquids. In this case it is better to continue processing with the passivated oxide surface. RCA clean is often done prior to furnace processes, an in these cases an HF dip after RCA-2 makes sense. Ideally the wafers should be transferred to the furnace immediately after RCA cleaning, because the samples will be very sensitive to recontamination as mentioned above.<br>		Since RCA1 can oxidize silicon to silicon dioxide, an HF dip is sometimes used between RCA1 and RCA2. This will also remove contaminants that can be trapped in the formed oxide. However, this step is often omitted, since RCA1 removes the native oxide and then re-oxidizes the surface. This in itself has a cleaning action. It is generally not advised to do an HF dip after RCA-2 if the samples will be processed by wet chemical processes afterwards. This is because the hydrogenated surface will be extremely reactive and therefore attract contaminants from both the air and processing liquids. In this case it is better to continue processing with the passivated oxide surface. RCA clean is often done prior to furnace processes, an in these cases an HF dip after RCA-2 makes sense. Ideally the wafers should be transferred to the furnace immediately after RCA cleaning, because the samples will be very sensitive to recontamination as mentioned above.<br>

	A crucial part of the RCA cleaning procedure is the oxidation by H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the lifetime of RCA1 and RCA2 solutions is limited to about 1 hour after preparation and heating to 70<sup>o</sup>C because H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> decomposes at this temperature. A temperature of 70°C is optimal. RCA solutions should never be heated above 80°C since this will lead to excessive decomposition and loss of NH<sub>3</sub>.		A crucial part of the RCA cleaning procedure is the oxidation by H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the lifetime of RCA1 and RCA2 solutions is limited to about 1 hour after preparation and heating to 70<sup>o</sup>C because H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> decomposes at this temperature. A temperature of 70°C is optimal. RCA solutions should never be heated above 80°C since this will lead to excessive decomposition and loss of NH<sub>3</sub>.<br>

	*RCA1 contains: H<sub>2</sub>O, NH<sub>4</sub>OH and H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (5:1:1). It is used for removal of light organics, particles and metals.<br>		*RCA1 contains: H<sub>2</sub>O, NH<sub>4</sub>OH and H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (5:1:1). It is used for removal of light organics, particles and metals.<br>

Choi: /* RCA cleaning */

2019-05-15T11:31:41Z

RCA cleaning

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:31, 15 May 2019
Line 10:		Line 10:
	Since RCA1 can oxidize silicon to silicon dioxide, an HF dip is sometimes used between RCA1 and RCA2. This will also remove contaminants that can be trapped in the formed oxide. However, this step is often omitted, since RCA1 removes the native oxide and then re-oxidizes the surface. This in itself has a cleaning action. It is generally not advised to do an HF dip after RCA-2 if the samples will be processed by wet chemical processes afterwards. This is because the hydrogenated surface will be extremely reactive and therefore attract contaminants from both the air and processing liquids. In this case it is better to continue processing with the passivated oxide surface. RCA clean is often done prior to furnace processes, an in these cases an HF dip after RCA-2 makes sense. Ideally the wafers should be transferred to the furnace immediately after RCA cleaning, because the samples will be very sensitive to recontamination as mentioned above.<br>		Since RCA1 can oxidize silicon to silicon dioxide, an HF dip is sometimes used between RCA1 and RCA2. This will also remove contaminants that can be trapped in the formed oxide. However, this step is often omitted, since RCA1 removes the native oxide and then re-oxidizes the surface. This in itself has a cleaning action. It is generally not advised to do an HF dip after RCA-2 if the samples will be processed by wet chemical processes afterwards. This is because the hydrogenated surface will be extremely reactive and therefore attract contaminants from both the air and processing liquids. In this case it is better to continue processing with the passivated oxide surface. RCA clean is often done prior to furnace processes, an in these cases an HF dip after RCA-2 makes sense. Ideally the wafers should be transferred to the furnace immediately after RCA cleaning, because the samples will be very sensitive to recontamination as mentioned above.<br>

	~~As mentioned above a~~ crucial part of the RCA cleaning procedure is the oxidation by H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the lifetime of RCA1 and RCA2 solutions is limited to about 1 hour after preparation ~~since~~ heating to 70<sup>o</sup>C because H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> decomposes at this temperature.		A crucial part of the RCA cleaning procedure is the oxidation by H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the lifetime of RCA1 and RCA2 solutions is limited to about 1 hour after preparation and heating to 70<sup>o</sup>C because H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> decomposes at this temperature. A temperature of 70°C is optimal. RCA solutions should never be heated above 80°C since this will lead to excessive decomposition and loss of NH<sub>3</sub>.

	*RCA1 contains: H<sub>2</sub>O, NH<sub>4</sub>OH and H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (5:1:1). It is used for removal of light organics, particles and metals.<br>		*RCA1 contains: H<sub>2</sub>O, NH<sub>4</sub>OH and H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (5:1:1). It is used for removal of light organics, particles and metals.<br>

Choi: /* RCA cleaning */

2019-05-15T11:27:51Z

RCA cleaning

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:27, 15 May 2019
Line 8:		Line 8:
	RCA1 is a powerful oxidizer and will thus remove organic contaminants. The ammonium hydroxide in RCA1 also has good solvating power as it can complex metals such as Cu, Ag, Ni, Co and Cd into solution. RCA2 forms soluble complexes with heavy metals and also shows cleaning action similar to that of piranha solutions. Furthermore, solutions of hydrochloric acid, which is a major constituent of RCA2, has proven effective at removing alkali metal ions. RCA2 is also effective at removing metal hydroxide traces that cannot be removed in ammonia-containing solutions such as RCA1. These include Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Fe(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Mg(OH)<sub>2</sub> and Zn(OH)<sub>2</sub>. It is important that the chemicals used are very clean. RCA mixtures are therefore only used shortly after mixing and for a limited number of samples.<br>		RCA1 is a powerful oxidizer and will thus remove organic contaminants. The ammonium hydroxide in RCA1 also has good solvating power as it can complex metals such as Cu, Ag, Ni, Co and Cd into solution. RCA2 forms soluble complexes with heavy metals and also shows cleaning action similar to that of piranha solutions. Furthermore, solutions of hydrochloric acid, which is a major constituent of RCA2, has proven effective at removing alkali metal ions. RCA2 is also effective at removing metal hydroxide traces that cannot be removed in ammonia-containing solutions such as RCA1. These include Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Fe(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Mg(OH)<sub>2</sub> and Zn(OH)<sub>2</sub>. It is important that the chemicals used are very clean. RCA mixtures are therefore only used shortly after mixing and for a limited number of samples.<br>

	Since RCA1 can oxidize silicon to silicon dioxide, an HF dip is sometimes used between RCA1 and RCA2. This will also remove contaminants that can be trapped in the formed oxide. ~~This~~ step ~~can also be~~ omitted, since RCA1 removes the native oxide and then re-oxidizes the surface. This in itself has a cleaning action. It is generally not advised to do an HF dip after RCA-2 if the samples will be processed by wet chemical processes afterwards. This is because the hydrogenated surface will be extremely reactive and therefore attract contaminants from both the air and processing liquids. In this case it is better to continue processing with the passivated oxide surface. RCA clean is often done prior to furnace processes, an in these cases an HF dip after RCA-2 makes sense. Ideally the wafers should be transferred to the furnace immediately after RCA cleaning, because the samples will be very sensitive to recontamination as mentioned above.<br>		Since RCA1 can oxidize silicon to silicon dioxide, an HF dip is sometimes used between RCA1 and RCA2. This will also remove contaminants that can be trapped in the formed oxide. However, this step is often omitted, since RCA1 removes the native oxide and then re-oxidizes the surface. This in itself has a cleaning action. It is generally not advised to do an HF dip after RCA-2 if the samples will be processed by wet chemical processes afterwards. This is because the hydrogenated surface will be extremely reactive and therefore attract contaminants from both the air and processing liquids. In this case it is better to continue processing with the passivated oxide surface. RCA clean is often done prior to furnace processes, an in these cases an HF dip after RCA-2 makes sense. Ideally the wafers should be transferred to the furnace immediately after RCA cleaning, because the samples will be very sensitive to recontamination as mentioned above.<br>

	As mentioned above a crucial part of the RCA cleaning procedure is the oxidation by H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the lifetime of RCA1 and RCA2 solutions is limited to about 1 hour after preparation since heating to 70<sup>o</sup>C because H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> decomposes at this temperature.		As mentioned above a crucial part of the RCA cleaning procedure is the oxidation by H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the lifetime of RCA1 and RCA2 solutions is limited to about 1 hour after preparation since heating to 70<sup>o</sup>C because H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> decomposes at this temperature.

Choi: /* RCA cleaning */

2019-05-15T11:26:57Z

RCA cleaning

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:26, 15 May 2019
Line 8:		Line 8:
	RCA1 is a powerful oxidizer and will thus remove organic contaminants. The ammonium hydroxide in RCA1 also has good solvating power as it can complex metals such as Cu, Ag, Ni, Co and Cd into solution. RCA2 forms soluble complexes with heavy metals and also shows cleaning action similar to that of piranha solutions. Furthermore, solutions of hydrochloric acid, which is a major constituent of RCA2, has proven effective at removing alkali metal ions. RCA2 is also effective at removing metal hydroxide traces that cannot be removed in ammonia-containing solutions such as RCA1. These include Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Fe(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Mg(OH)<sub>2</sub> and Zn(OH)<sub>2</sub>. It is important that the chemicals used are very clean. RCA mixtures are therefore only used shortly after mixing and for a limited number of samples.<br>		RCA1 is a powerful oxidizer and will thus remove organic contaminants. The ammonium hydroxide in RCA1 also has good solvating power as it can complex metals such as Cu, Ag, Ni, Co and Cd into solution. RCA2 forms soluble complexes with heavy metals and also shows cleaning action similar to that of piranha solutions. Furthermore, solutions of hydrochloric acid, which is a major constituent of RCA2, has proven effective at removing alkali metal ions. RCA2 is also effective at removing metal hydroxide traces that cannot be removed in ammonia-containing solutions such as RCA1. These include Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Fe(OH)<sub>3</sub>, Mg(OH)<sub>2</sub> and Zn(OH)<sub>2</sub>. It is important that the chemicals used are very clean. RCA mixtures are therefore only used shortly after mixing and for a limited number of samples.<br>

	Since RCA1 can oxidize silicon to silicon dioxide, an HF dip is sometimes used between RCA1 and RCA2. This will also remove contaminants that can be trapped in the formed oxide. This step can also be omitted, since RCA1 removes the native oxide and then re-oxidizes the surface. This in itself has a cleaning action. It is generally not advised to do an HF dip after RCA-2 if the samples will be processed by wet chemical processes afterwards. This is because the hydrogenated surface will be extremely reactive and therefore attract contaminants from both the air and processing liquids. In this case it is better to continue processing with the passivated oxide surface. ~~For~~ furnace processes, an HF dip after RCA-2 makes ~~more~~ sense ~~(but ideally~~ the wafers should be transferred to the furnace ~~processes~~ immediately).<br>		Since RCA1 can oxidize silicon to silicon dioxide, an HF dip is sometimes used between RCA1 and RCA2. This will also remove contaminants that can be trapped in the formed oxide. This step can also be omitted, since RCA1 removes the native oxide and then re-oxidizes the surface. This in itself has a cleaning action. It is generally not advised to do an HF dip after RCA-2 if the samples will be processed by wet chemical processes afterwards. This is because the hydrogenated surface will be extremely reactive and therefore attract contaminants from both the air and processing liquids. In this case it is better to continue processing with the passivated oxide surface. RCA clean is often done prior to furnace processes, an in these cases an HF dip after RCA-2 makes sense. Ideally the wafers should be transferred to the furnace immediately after RCA cleaning, because the samples will be very sensitive to recontamination as mentioned above.<br>

	As mentioned above a crucial part of the RCA cleaning procedure is the oxidation by H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the lifetime of RCA1 and RCA2 solutions is limited to about 1 hour after preparation since heating to 70<sup>o</sup>C because H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> decomposes at this temperature.		As mentioned above a crucial part of the RCA cleaning procedure is the oxidation by H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the lifetime of RCA1 and RCA2 solutions is limited to about 1 hour after preparation since heating to 70<sup>o</sup>C because H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> decomposes at this temperature.